Sacrificed or Saved?: The Sacrfice of Iphigenia

The Myth of Iphigenia:

Many people in today’s society are intrigued by Greek mythology, especially when it comes to appeasing the gods through sacrifice.  The sacrifice of Iphigenia by Euripides is no different.  Many plays, musicals and paintings have adapted Iphigenia’s story to entertain an audience. 

Iphigenie (1862) by Anselm Feuerbach

Background:

While many believe that Clytemnestra and Agamemnon, head of the Greek military, are Iphigenia’s parents, some myths hint at Helen of Troy and King Theseus of Athens as being the true, biological parents.  Myths clearly tell us that Theseus abducted Helen and held her captive in Attica.  When rescued by her brothers, Theseus was punished. Helen, along with whom many researchers believe to be Iphigenia, born of Helen while she was prisoner to Theseus, was brought back to Sparta.   “Helen entrusted Iphigenia to her sister, Clytemnestra, who brought her up as if she had been her own child so that Helen could pretend that she was still a virgin” (Parada). 

The Appeasement of Artemis:

Many stories vary as to why Artemis was offended by Agamemnon, but most of them claim that Agamemnon had boasted after killing a sacred animal.  "Artemis herself could not do it better" (Apollodorus & Frazer).  Other accounts in addition mention that he did “not sacrifice to her the golden lamb” (Apollodorus & Frazer).  Nonetheless, Artemis was indeed angry, causing the fleet of Troy to be wind-bound at Aulis. 

Agamemnon turned to a seer named Calchas as the troops were becoming uneasy.  Calchas returned an oracle, saying that only if he sacrificed his fairest daughter, Iphigenia, would they then be able to sail again.  At first Agamemnon denied this request, but as the troops became more restless he realized he was left with no choice. 

Agamemnon went to his wife and told her that their daughter was to be married to Achilles because of his military service.  While Iphigenia was sent to the altar in Aulis, Clytemnestra learned of her husband’s trickery when realizing Achilles knew nothing of the marriage. 

The Sacrifice of Iphigenia (1671) by Jan Havicksz Steen

Iphigenia’s Reaction:

Iphigenia begged to her father, "Do not destroy me before my time, for it is sweet to look upon the light, and do not force me to visit the world below” (Euripides).  But Agamemnon had angry and restless troops forcing him to perform the sacrifice.  Eventually, Iphigenia accepted death, as she knew that she would be remembered as a saving light.  It is said that Agamemnon burst into tears and looked away as his daughter was led to the altar. 

Sacrifice or Saved?

From here there are again variances.  Some say the sacrifice was made and the ships were able to continue their travels.  Others say that Artemis saved her at the last moment by placing a deer in her place.  Artemis then gave her a spot as a priestess and possibly immortality as well. 

This tale seems minor in comparison to what follows.  The troops sailed on to fight a bloody, ten-year battle and Agamemnon was killed not in battle, but by Clytemnestra, who harbored revenge for Iphigenia.  

The Sacrifice of Iphigenia (1749) by Francesco Fontebasso

Iphigenia’s Effect on Greek Society:

The Greek’s highly regarded Iphigenia’s sacrifice.  She “goes willingly to her death to allow a military expedition of aggression for which she has no responsibility against a foreign foe in which she has no real investment” (Kovacs).  Her bravery and nobility was said to be greater than most kings and soldiers, for which the Greek’s honored her.  In Marianne McDonald’s book on Classical culture she describes Iphigenia as both “consistent and heroic, exhibiting what I call a new heroism: no longer are Homeric heroes the sole repository of virtue; now virtue is to be found in women, slaves and children” (McDonald).  This proves that while Greek society did see women as the lesser of the two sexes, some exceptions were made to women that showed outstanding morals. 

Conclusion:

Whether Iphigenia was truly sacrificed or whether she was saved at the last minute by the same god that demanded her sacrifice, Greeks and scholars alike hold her story in high regards.  The bravery and virtues that she had, gives her infamy as well as praise. 

Bib:

Apollodorus, and James George Frazer. Apollodorus: The Library. London: W. Heinemann, 1921. 

Feuerbach, Anselm. Iphigenie. 1862.

Fontebasso, Francesco. The Sacrifice of Iphigenia. 1749.

Gross, Rachel & Grote, Dale. "Iphigenia." Encyclopedia Mythica. 2014. Encyclopedia Mythica Online. 28 Jan. 2014.

Kovacs, George Adam. "Iphigenia at Aulis": Myth, Performance, and Reception.” Order No. NR97110 University of Toronto (Canada), 2010 Ann Arbor ProQuest. 28 Jan. 2014 .

McDonald, Marianne. "Iphigenia's "Philia": Motivation in Euripides "Iphigenia at Aulis""Quaderni Urbinati Di Cultura Classica:. 1st ed. Vol. 34. Roma: Ed. Dell'Ateneo, 1986. 69-84. 

Parada, Carlos. "Iphigenia - Greek Mythology." Greek Mythology Link. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

Steen, Jan Haviscksz The Sacrifice of Iphigenia. 1671. by Jan Havicksz. Steen                   

The Trojan War Explained

What was the Trojan War?

Trojan War History documentary, watch 5:45~9:30

Throughout Greek history, many wars have been waged; however, only one is ever referenced: the Trojan War. For centuries, the city of Troy only existed in myth, specifically Homer’s Iliad. So what is the Trojan War and why did it happen? Well, starting sometime in the 13^th century BCE (Cartwright), the Gods held a wedding between Pelius and Thetius, later parents of Achilles; however, they did not invite the goddess Discord. Discord shows up anyway holding a golden apple with an inscription “For the Fairest”(Video). Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite all claim the apple (Video). They ask for Zeus to be the judge, but he declines and puts the decision on Paris, the prince of Troy (Video). As bribery ensues, Paris makes his decision: Aphrodite (Video). Granting him the gift she promised, Paris gets the most beautiful woman in the world, which happens to be Helen, Queen of Sparta (Video). Paris thus goes to Sparta when Menelaus is absent and elopes with Helen back to Troy (Video). Upon the King’s return, he is enraged and appeals to Agamemnon, who summons all the Greek city-states to sail to Troy for war (Video). As 1000 Greek ships head to Troy, the city of Troy prepares itself for the defensive. Only after the Greeks successfully cut off supplies to the city does Troy call for aid from its allies to the west (Foster). After nearly 10 years, the Greeks were tired of fighting and came up with the ruse now known as the Trojan Horse: stuffed with Greek men, a wooden horse was left as a trophy to the Trojans (Video). However, the Greeks that had left planned to return by nightfall, and in the dark of the night as Trojans partied, the Greek men in the horse snuck out and left their comrades into the city (Video). From there, Greeks raped, sacked, pillaged, and burned the city to nothingness (Video). In this story, the horse is often used as a symbol of the entire war. It shows how ingenuity and trickery became part of war even though Greek morals normally opposed the second. But where does the questioning of the Iliad come into play? Homer, the author, wasn’t born until nearly 5 centuries later, meaning what he knew was only based oral history.

Trojan Horse depiction

To this date, the Iliad is the best source of information for historians and archaeologists. One problem with this is that the Iliad is based on oral stories that are not always true. Scholars have often challenged the reliability of this source and strive to prove it both right and wrong. “Everyone is agreed that the Iliad as we have it is full of exaggerations, distortions, pure fictions, and flagrant conditions”(Finley).  Many scholars do however go along the thought process of such, “…we impose our own evaluation of what is and what is not credible on the ancients”(Finley). In this case, the author has simply put the Greek gods and religion as the make believe and has left the war itself as fact. It is also commonplace to compare to outside source stories, such as the Song of Roland, to see what amount of truth is in the other societies’ stories of that same era. Likewise, the city of Troy has now been excavated on the Anatolia Peninsula; however, the newest challenge is whether or not the war happened. In the Troy VI/VII level of excavation (which assumingly refers to the number of rebuilds on top of the current), there are amounts of weaponry, heavy fortifications, and a large holy sanctuary (Korfmann). These all lead to a good conclusion that Homer’s Iliad, while religiously biased at the time, did have true events and recaps in it. In conclusion, one of the greatest symbolic wars in history now has modern proof of existence and someday will unveil even more secrets about its story.

Walls of Troy VII

Bibliography

B. O. Foster. The Trojan War Again. The American Journal of Philology , Vol. 36, No. 3 (1915) , pp. 298-313. Jan 25, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/289343        

Cartwright, Mark. (May 15, 2013). Trojan War. Text. Web. Jan 25, 2014. http://www.ancient.eu.com/Trojan_War/

Korfmann, M. (2004). Was there a Trojan War?. Archaeology, 57(3), 36-38. Text. Web. Jan 25, 2014. Link

M. I. Finley, J. L. Caskey, G. S. Kirk and D. L. Page. The Trojan War. The Journal of Hellenic Studies , Vol. 84, (1964) , pp. 1-20. Jan 25, 2014. http://www.jstor.org/stable/627688

Trojan horse. [Picture]. Retrieved Jan 26, 2014 from http://www.ancient.eu.com/uploads/images/1215.jpg

Troy-The Real Story (Documentary). [Video]. Retrieved Jan 25, 2014 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFCk7uMvnOU

Walls of Troy VII. [Picture]. Retrieved Jan 26, 2014 from http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Walls_of_Troy_%282%29.jpg

Brandon Groff

The Ziggurat

A virtual "walkthrough" of a classical Mesopotamian Ziggurat

The theme of pyramidal structures used as dedication to deities or the worship of higher figures is prevalent throughout cultures across the globe, including the classical pyramids of Egypt, the Mesoamerican step pyramids throughout Central and South America, and the ziggurats of Mesopotamia. Ziggurats are four-sided “pyramidal structures which were … built one stage upon another, with a shrine, or a place of worship, at the topmost part” (Knight 55). The word “ziggurat” signifies “The Hill of Heaven” (Wight 2), which could refer to their use as a representation of a particular god’s home. Ziggurats were located in the major Sumerian cities, including Ur, Eridu, and Nippur. Each major city had its own patron god, for which the ziggurat provided an “earthly home.” Each ziggurat mound was part of a larger temple complex; many had courtyards stationed in front of the structure. 

 Woolley's drawing of what the ziggurat of Ur would have looked like

Ziggurat, ca. 1920's

The ziggurat at Ur, which was excavated in its entirety by Sir Leonard Woolley and his team in the 1920’s, is the best preserved ziggurat in the Mesopotamian area. The ziggurat is made of “unbaked mudbrick with a skin of baked brick and the sides are slightly bowed both horizontally and vertically in order to give the illusion of being straight” (Crawford 110). Indentations and recesses were constructed within the walls to lend an interesting design. There were many gods and goddesses of Mesopotamian religion, but only the most important ones would have ziggurats dedicated to them. The people of Ur, for instance, placed offerings such as “barley, cattle, milk, cheese, linen, wool, copper, gold, etc.” (Wight 3) for the particular god on the ziggurat. While pyramids in ancient Egyptian culture were tombs for the pharaohs and close associations to the kings, ziggurats for the Sumerian culture were used for the dedication to a particular god or goddess. 

Artist's rendering of a New Year's Festival

Scholars have debated on the true purpose of the ziggurat, including reflecting “a folk memory of the mountainous country from which the Sumerians may, or may not, have originated” (Crawford 108). This is thought because many of the ziggurats’ names contain the Sumerian word for mountain, and that they have the relative size and shape to evoke a mountainous form. Other scholars argue that it was a focal point for sacred festivities, such as the sacred marriage between the priestess of the goddess (in the case of our class, Inanna) and the king of the city and the new year festival (Crawford 108). Another topic of deliberation is the influence of the ziggurat on modern day Arabic buildings. R.P. Dougherty notes that both ziggurats of Sumerian times and modern day Arab structures both have “sloping sides and pronounced panels” (Dougherty 69). Although modern Arabic buildings most likely had other influences than mainly the ziggurat, the structure of the step pyramid is seen throughout modern day architecture all over the world. 

 Ziggurat of Ur, ca. 1920's

 Ziggurat of Ur, reconstructed

Works Cited

 (2005). Ancient ziggurat at Ali Air Base Iraq. [Photograph]. Retrieved January 20, 2014 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki

Crawford, H. (1993). Sumer and the Sumerians. Available from http://www.ebook3000.com/Sumer-and-the-Sumerians_174877.html

German, S. (n.d.). Ziggurat of Ur. Retrieved from smarthistory.khanacademy.org/ziggurat-of-ur.html

Iraq, Ziggurat, Ur. [Photograph]. Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/matpc.13224/

Knight, E.W. 1933. Digging up the past in Iraq. The University of North Carolina Press 16(2), 54-60.

McDermott, J. (1967). Painting of New Year’s Day at the Ziggurat of Ur. [Painting]. Retrieved January 20, 2014 from http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/759360  

Ruined ziggurat at Ur. [Photograph]. Retrieved January 20, 2014 from http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/759360

Wight, F.H. 1955. Highlights of archaeology in bible lands. Retrieved from baptistbiblebelievers.com/Portals/0/Bible Times/Science/hab_04.pdf

Woolley, C. L. (n.d.). Drawing of the Ziggurat at Ur. [Drawing]. Retrieved January 20, 2014 from http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/759360 

Babylon or Nineveh? That is the Question.

           Legend has it that the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were a gift of love from King Nebuchadnezzar to his homesick wife, Amyitis (Krystek).  Nebuchadnezzar and Amyitis were married to create an alliance between Babylon and Medes (Krystek).  Unlike the green, mountainous terrain of Medes, Mesopotamian terrain was flat and dull, severely depressing the beautiful queen (Krystek).  Stricken by his wife’s despair, Nebuchadnezzar spared no expense, ordering the construction of a grand, luxurious mountain of gardens to satisfy his queen (Krystek).  Originally, the gardens served as a VIP lounge for the elite and members of the royal household (Stevenson 42).  It is not known if the king and queen hosted galas or parties in the garden, but it is probable considering the gardens were reserved for those in the royal household.   After Babylon fell to the Persians, however, the gardens were opened to the public as a sort of peace-offering, preventing a revolution as a result of the power-shift (Stevenson 42).

Considered to be one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were designed to mimic a natural landscape with trees and running water (The Hanging Gardens of Babylon).  The artificial hill resembled the shape and dimensions of a Greek theatre (The Hanging Gardens of Babylon).  The lower level most-likely featured a recreational lake, and pavilions stood erect in the gardens (The Hanging Gardens of Babylon).  Through the years, there has been some confusion to the true lay-out and design of the gardens.  Largely, this is due to the use of the English word “hanging” when describing the wonders of the gardens as they did not truly hang (Dalley 7).

Three ancient authors—Strabo, Diodorus, and Berossus— described the structure of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon as terraced or stepped in the form of a ziggurat (Stevenson 40).  The gardens set on the east of bank of the River Euphrates, directly next to the palace (Stevenson 42).  Given the sheer size and shape of the mountain, irrigation of the gardens was problematic.  It was thought that an Archimedean screw pump was used to irrigate the plants, drawing water from the nearby river (The Hanging Gardens of Babylon). 

Archimedes Screw

 

Much debate occurred as to the exact location of the gardens within the palace complex.  If the gardens were to have been located on the northern end, they would have been far from the royal apartments (Stevenson 42). Also, the gardens would have been exposed to the harsh north-westerly winds, leading to a rapid-rate of evaporation and ultimately the dehydration of the plants.  Furthermore, the winds blew strongest during the summer, a time when many in the household would flock to the gardens to escape the heat (Stevenson 42).  If indeed the gardens were on the northern side, the people would have sought refuge somewhere less impacted by the ferocious winds. (Stevenson 42).  Locating the gardens on the southern-end of the complex, therefore, seems to be most ideal (Stevenson 42).   Not only would they be better sheltered from the wind, but they would also be easily accessed from the royal apartments (Stevenson 42).

            Scholars also debate on the true location of the gardens.  One assyriologist, Stephanie Dalley, proposed the Hanging Gardens were actually located in Nineveh (Reade 97).  Dalley based her claim in the noted absence of references to gardens in various royal inscriptions from Neo-Babylonian times (Reade 97).  The Assyrian kings, in contrast, described their gardens in Nineveh in meticulous detail (Reade 97).  Furthermore, it was common for Greco-Roman writers to confuse Mesopotamian personal and geographical names, as some of Babylon’s monuments have been credited to “Assyrian” rulers (Reade 97).  In addition, the Archimedean screw was commonly described in the details of the Nineveh gardens (Reade 97).  Likewise, Nineveh and Babylon, according to The Oxford Companion to the Garden, were often confused by biblical and classical writers (2006).  It was not uncommon for writers to confuse Sennacherib (the Assyrian king) and Nebuchadnezzar (the Babylonian king) (The Hanging Gardens of Babylon).  In fact, recent evidence shows the Nineveh could have come to be known as Babylon (Dalley 9).

            Regardless of the true location of the Hanging Gardens, they would have been an extraordinary sight to see.  Their sheer beauty and promised luxuries were unlike anything seen today.   Furthermore, the story behind their construction is heartwarming and romantic, reflecting true love.   And who doesn’t love a good love story?

Works Cited

Babylon: The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis. 04 June 2009. Image. 18 January 2014. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLlroENeNHk>.

Dalley, Stephanie. "Ancient Mesopotamian Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon Resolved." Garden History 21.1 (1993): 1-13. Web. 18 January 2014.

EpicPhysics.com. "Archimedes Screw 5." 2011. Video. 18 January 2014. <http://www.epicphysics.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Archimedes-Screw-5.jpg>.

"Hanging Gardens of Babylon." May 06 2013. Image. 20 January 2014. <http://www.natureworldnews.com/articles/1770/20130506/nebuchadnezzars-hanging-garden-babylon-actually-rival-kings-land-300-miles.htm>.

"The Hanging Gardens of Babylon."  The Oxford Companion to the Garden. Ed. Patrick Taylor. 

            Oxford University Press, 2006. Web. 19 January 2014.

Krystek, Lee. Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 1999. Web. 19 January 2014. <http://www.unmuseum.org/hangg.htm>.

Reade, Julian. "Alexander the Great and the Hanging Gardens of Babylon." Iraq. Vol. 62. British Insititute for the Study of Iraq, 2000. 195-217. Web. 18 January 2014.

Stevenson, D. W. W. "A Proposal for the Irrigation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon." Iraq. Vol. 54. British Institute for the Study of Iraq, 1992. 35-55. Web. 18 January 2014.